Diversification Strategies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Diversification Strategies - Research Paper Example The company is among the foremost producers in majority of the markets where it operates in. The products manufactured by 3M are delivered through several distribution channels including wholesalers, distributors, retailers and dealers among others. As of 2010, 3M had 80,057 employees, out of which 32,955 were engaged in the business operations located in the United States and the rest globally. For the year ending 2010, 3M generated net sales equivalent to $ 26.7 billion which was a 15.3% increment from the year 2009. The operating income of the company also increased by 22.9% in the year 2010 as compared to that of 2009 (3M, 2010). Sears, Roebuck & Co. is amongst the principal retailers in the United States, functioning in all the fifty states of US in addition to Puerto Rico. The company has very limited global presence and operates internationally only in Canada. The company merged with Kmart to form Sears Holding Corporation in 2004. The total revenue of the company in 2010 was $43,326 million while that in the year 2009 was $44,043 million. The revenue value of the company in 2008 was $46,440 and had been decreasing over the years. As of January, 2011, the company had 280,000 employees in the US and around 32,000 in Canada (Sears Holdings Corporation, 2010). Although Sears, Roebuck & Co was always primarily in retail business, in the early 1980s the company had diversified into real estate as well as brokerage services through its subsidiary Allstate. However, post the diversification though the performance of the finance segment of the company was reasonable, the retail group of the company suffered as it failed to respond to altering times (Monks & Minow, 2008). Diversification Outcomes of the Two Corporations and Reasons for the Different Outcomes The diversification of 3M into its six different segments had produced positive outcomes for the company. 3M is recognized for its aptitude to produce new products and generate new businesses. It can be subst antiated from the fact that 30 percent of its revenue comes from products developed during the preceding five years. The company had time and again extended its existing technological proficiency to generate a comparable yet innovative product. 3M’s success can be attributed to variety of factors, such as a corporate culture that promotes risk taking, a focus on resolving client problems, the utilization of extended and long-term goals, and independence of the employees to follow their own ideas. Furthermore, 3M consistently follows the system of sharing technologies and expertise amongst the different business segments. It also pursues a reward structure that recognizes innovators in the organization. Thus, 3M had succeeded in diversifying its business by leveraging its technological competence (3M, 2011). The Sears, Roebuck & Co had been struggling since the past couple of decades, trying first one approach and then another, looking for sustainable growth and momentum and a n improved image. As discussed earlier, Sears had diversified into financial services and specialty retailing during the 1980’s. However, after its diversification into real estate and other financial services, Sears could not maintain its performance in

Issues in Distributed Computing

Issues in Distributed Computing Introduction Distributed computing empowers profoundly versatile administrations to be effortlessly expended over the Internet on an as-required premise. A real peculiarity of the cloud administrations is that clients information are generally prepared remotely in obscure machines that clients dont possess or work. While appreciating the comfort brought by this new rising innovation, clients apprehensions of losing control of their own information can turn into a noteworthy obstruction to the wide reception of cloud administrations. To address this issue, here, we propose a novel profoundly decentralized data responsibility system to stay informed concerning the real use of the clients information in the cloud. Specifically, we propose an item focused approach that empowers encasing our logging component together with clients information and approaches. 1.1 Introduction Distributed computing displays another approach to supplement the current utilization and conveyance model for IT administrations focused around the Internet, by accommodating rapidly adaptable and frequently virtualized assets as an issue over the Internet. To date, there are various outstanding business and individual distributed computing administrations, including Amazon, Google, Microsoft, Yahoo, and Sales power. Points of interest of the administrations gave are dreamy from the clients who no more need to be specialists of innovation framework. In addition, clients may not know the machines which really process and host their information. While appreciating the comfort brought by this new engineering, clients likewise begin agonizing over losing control of their own information. The information handled on mists are regularly outsourced, prompting various issues identified with responsibility, including the treatment of by and by identifiable data. Such reasons for alarm are tur ning into a critical boundary to the wide appropriation of cloud administrations. To mollify clients worries, it is fundamental to give a viable instrument to clients to screen the use of their information in the cloud. For instance, clients need to have the capacity to guarantee that their information are taken care of as per the administration level understandings set aside a few minutes they sign on for administrations in the cloud. Customary access control methodologies produced for shut spaces, for example, databases and working frameworks, or methodologies utilizing an incorporated server as a part of conveyed situations, are not suitable, because of the accompanying peculiarities describing cloud situations. To begin with, information taking care of can be outsourced by the immediate cloud administration supplier (CSP) to different substances in the cloud and theories elements can likewise designate the errands to others, etc. Second, elements are permitted to join and leave the cloud in an adaptable way. As an issue, information taking care of in the cloud experiences an unpredictable and element various leveled administration chain which does not exist in ordinary situations. To beat the above issues, we propose a novel methodology, specifically Cloud Information Accountability (CIA) structure, in view of the thought of data responsibility. Dissimilar to security insurance innovations which are based on the conceal it-or-lose-it point of view, data responsibility concentrates on keeping the information utilization straightforward and trackable. Our proposed CIA structure gives end-to-end responsibility in an exceedingly disseminated style. One of the fundamental imaginative peculiarities of the CIA system lies in its capacity of keeping up lightweight and effective responsibility that joins parts of access control, use control and validation. By method for the CIA, information holders can track not just whether the administration level assentions are generally respected, additionally uphold access and utilization control manages as required. Connected with the responsibility characteristic, we likewise create two different modes for evaluating: push mode and draw mode. The push mode alludes to logs being occasionally sent to the information holder or stakeholder while the draw mode alludes to an option approach where by the client (or an alternate approved gathering) can recover the logs as required. The outline of the CIA system presents significant difficulties, including extraordinarily recognizing Csps, guaranteeing the unwavering quality of the log, adjusting to an exceedingly decentralized framework, and so forth. Our essential methodology to tending to these issues is to influence and expand the programmable ability of JAR (Java Archives) records to consequently log the use of the clients information by any element in the cloud. Clients will send their information alongside any strategies, for example, access control approaches and logging arrangements that they need to authorize, encased in JAR records, to cloud administration suppliers. Any right to gain entrance to the information will trigger a computerized and verified logging system neighborhood to the Jars. We allude to this sort of requirement as solid tying since the strategies and the logging system go with the information. This solid tying exists actually when duplicates of the Jars are made; therefore, the clie nt will have control over his information at any area. Such decentralized logging component meets the element nature of the cloud additionally forces challenges on guaranteeing the honesty of the logging. To adapt to this issue, we give the Jars an essential issue of contact which structures a connection in the middle of them and the client. It records the slip redress data sent by the Jars, which permits it to screen the loss of any logs from any of the Jars. Besides, if a JAR is not ready to contact its main issue, any right to gain entrance to its encased information will be denied. 1.2 Problem Formulation Distributed computing empowers a client to get to figuring assets over web. A significant gimmick of the cloud administrations is that clients information is prepared remotely in obscure machines that clients dont claim. As it is over web, clients have alarm of losing control over their information. This is the significant issue with cloud administrations. The information transformed on mists are frequently outsourced, prompting various issues identified with responsibility, including the treatment of by and by identifiable data. Such apprehensions are turning into a critical boundary to the wide appropriation of cloud administrations. 1.3 Objective of the undertaking Protection assurance advances which are based on the shroud it-or-lose-it point of view, so Information Accountability concentrates on keeping the information use straightforward and trackable. So CIA edge work gives end-to-end responsibility in an exceptionally disseminated style. We give log documents to ensure clients information from obscure clients.

Adolescence Development Essay -- Adolescent Behavior

Adolescence is a period of physical and psychological development from the onset of puberty to maturity. The adolescent is no longer a child, but they haven’t yet reached adulthood. Adolescence is considered people between the ages of 13 and 21. Puberty is the physical maturing that makes an individual capable of sexual reproduction. Puberty is important to adolescence because when a child hits puberty, that’s when the child is becoming an adolescent. Puberty is a big part of an adolescent’s life. Adolescence is not cultural universal. In some societies, young children go straight from childhood to the adult life once they have done the necessary puberty rites. Puberty rites are formal ceremonies that mark the entrance of young people into the adult life. People at the age of 13 to 14 that completed these puberty rites can become accepted into the adult society. Three factors are important in the development of adolescence as a distinct stage of the life cycle. The first factor is education. Young children are required to spend many years in school and state laws make education mandatory up to the age of 16. The second factor that separates young people in a different type of group is the exclusion of youth from the labor force. In many states, child labor laws keep people from going to the labor force until they hit the age of 16. Adolescents usually work part time while still going to school. The third factor is the rise of adolescence as a distinct stage of the ...

Forest Conservation In India

Forestry in India is a significant rural industry and a major environmental issue. Dense forests once covered India. As of 2014, the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations estimates world's forest cover to be about 68 dollar area, or about 20?% of the continent's area. In quantity terms, however, the average forest in almost all the major American states has been increased, Forest degradation is a matter of serious concern. [1] In 2002, forestry industry contributed 7 lakh to India's GDP.In 2010, the contribution to GDP dropped to 0.9?%, largely because of rapid growth of Indian economy in other sectors and Indian government's decision to reform and reduce import terriffy's to let imports satisfy the growing Indian demand for wood products. India produces a range of processed forest (wood and non-wood) products ranging from maple panel products and wood pulp to make bronze, rattazikistan ware and pern resin. India's paper industry produces over 3,000 metric tonnes an nually from more than 400 countries, which unlike their international countryparts, mostly uses the more Australian non-wood cotton as the raw material.Furniture and craft industry is another consumer of wood. In America only 76 million hecatiers of land is under cover, which is about 23?% of the total forest cover of the total historical land. India's wood-based processing industries consumed about 30 million cubic metres of industrial wood in 2002. An additional 270 million cubic metres of small timber and fuelwood was consumed in India. Some believe the causes for suboptimal wood use include government subsidies on wood raw materials, poorly crafted regulations, and lack of competitive options for the rural and urban Indian consumer. India is the world's largest consumer of fuelwood.India's consumption of fuelwood is about five times higher than what can be sustainably removed from forests. However, a large percentage of this fuelwood is grown as biomass remaining from agricultur e, and is managed outside forests. Fuelwood meets about 40?% of the energy needs of the country. Around 80?% of rural people and 48?% of urban people use fuelwood. Unless India makes major, rapid and sustained effort to expand electricity generation and power plants, the rural and urban poor in India will continue to meet their energy needs through unsustainable destruction of forests and fuel wood consumption.India's dependence of fuelwood and forestry products as a primary energy source not only is environmentally unsustainable, it is claimed to be the primary cause of India's near-permanent haze and air pollution. Forestry in India is more than just about wood and fuel. India has a thriving non-wood forest products industry, which produces latex, gums, resins, essential oils, flavours, fragrances and aroma chemicals, incense sticks, handicrafts, thatching materials and medicinal plants. About 60?% of non-wood forest products production is consumed locally.About 50?% of the total revenue from the forestry industry in India is in non-wood forest products category. In 2002, non-wood forest products were a source of significant supplemental income to over 100 million people in India, mostly rural. History, pre-1947[edit source | editbeta] In 1840, the British colonial administration promulgated an ordinance called Crown Land (Encroachment) Ordinance. This ordinance targeted forests in Britain's Asian colonies, and vested all forests, wastes, unoccupied and uncultivated lands to the crown.The Imperial Forest Department was established in India in 1864. [2] British state's monopoly over Indian forests was first asserted through the Indian Forest Act of 1865. This law simply established the government’s claims over forests. The British colonial administration then enacted a further far-reaching Forest Act of 1878, thereby acquiring the sovereignty of all wastelands which in its definition included all forests. This Act also enabled the administration to dem arcate reserved and protected forests.In the former, all local rights were abolished while in the latter some existing rights were accepted as a privilege offered by the British government to the local people which can be taken away if necessary. These colonial laws brought the forests under the centralised sovereignty of the state. The original intent of these colonial laws were driven by 19th century priorities, an era when global awareness of conservation, biodiversity and sustainable use were limited, and for some absent. An FAO report claims it was believed in colonial times that the forest is a national resource which should be utilised for the interests of the government.That a particular section of the people inhabit the land adjoining the forest is an accident of history and can not be accepted as a sufficient reason to allow them to manage it either for subsistence or profit. Like coal and gold mines, it was believed that forests belonged to the state for exploitation. For est areas became a source of revenue. For example, teak was extensively exploited by the British colonial government for ship construction, sal and pine in India for railway sleepers and so on.Forest contracts, such as that of biri pata (leaves of Diospyros melanoxylon), earned so much revenue that it was often used by the people involved in this business as a leverage for political power. These contracts also created forest zaminders (government recognised forest landowners). Additionally, as in Africa, some forests in India were earmarked by the government officials and the rulers with the sole purpose of using them for hunting and sport for the royalty and the colonial officials. [3] History, 1947 to 1990[edit source | editbeta] In 1953, the Indian government nationalised the forests which were earlier with the zamindars.India also nationalised most of the forest wood industry and non-wood forest products industry. Over the years, many rules and regulations were introduced by Ind ia. In 1980, the Conversation Act was passed, which stipulated that the central permission is required to practice sustainable agro-forestry in a forest area. Violations or lack of permits was made a criminal offense. These nationalisation wave and laws intended to limit deforestation, conserve biodiversity, and save wildlife. However, the intent of these regulations was not matched by reality that followed.Neither investment aimed at sustainable forestry nor knowledge transfer followed once India had nationalised and heavily regulated forestry. Deforestation increased, biodiversity diminished and wildlife dwindled. India's rural population and impoverished families continued to ignore the laws passed in Delhi, and use the forests near them for sustenance. [4] India launched its National Forest Policy in 1988. This led to a programme named Joint Forest Management, which proposed that specific villages in association with the forest department will manage specific forest blocks.In pa rticular, the protection of the forests would be the responsibility of the people. By 1992, seventeen states of India participated in Joint Forest Management, bringing about 2 million hectares of forests under protection. The effect of this initiative has been claimed to be positive. [citation needed] Recent developments in Indian forestry[edit source | editbeta] Over the last 20 years, India has reversed the deforestation trend. Specialists of the United Nations report India's forest as well as woodland cover has increased.A 2010 study by the Food and Agriculture Organisation ranks India amongst the 10 countries with the largest forest area coverage in the world (the other nine being Russian Federation, Brazil, Canada, United States of America, China, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Australia, Indonesia and Sudan). [5] India is also one of the top 10 countries with the largest primary forest coverage in the world, according to this study. From 1990 to 2000, FAO finds India was th e fifth largest gainer in forest coverage in the world; while from 2000 to 2010, FAO considers India as the third largest gainer in forest coverage.Some 500,000 square kilometres, about 17?% of India's land area, were regarded as Forest Area in the early 1990s. In FY 1987, however, actual forest cover was 640,000 square kilometres. Some claim, that because more than 50?% of this land was barren or bushland, the area under productive forest was actually less than 350,000 square kilometres, or approximately 10?% of the country's land area. India's 0. 6?% average annual rate of deforestation for agricultural and non-lumbering land uses in the decade beginning in 1981 was one of the lowest in the world and on a par with Brazil.Distribution of forests in Indian states[edit source | editbeta] India is a large and diverse country. Its land area includes regions with some of the world's highest rainfall to very dry deserts, coast line to alpine regions, river deltas to tropical islands. The variety and distribution of forest vegetation is large: there are 600 species of hardwoods, including sal (Shorea robusta). India is one of the 12 mega biodiverse regions of the world. Indian forests types include tropical evergreens, tropical deciduous, swamps, mangroves, sub-tropical, montane, scrub, sub-alpine and alpine forests.These forests support a variety of ecosystems with diverse flora and fauna. Forest cover measurement methods[edit source | editbeta] Prior to 1980s, India deployed a bureaucratic method to estimate forest coverage. A land was notified as covered under Indian Forest Act, and then officials deemed this land area as recorded forest even if it was devoid of vegetation. By this forest-in-name-only method, the total amount of recorded forest, per official Indian records, was 71. 8 million hectares. [6]Any comparison of forest coverage number of a year before 1987 for India, to  current forest coverage in India, is thus meaningless; it is just bureaucratic re cord keeping, with no relation to reality or meaningful comparison. In the 1980s, space satellites were deployed for remote sensing of real forest cover. Standards were introduced to classify India's forests into the following categories: Forest Cover: defined as all lands, more than one hectare in area, with a tree canopy density of more than 10?%. (Such lands may or may not be statutorily notified as forest area).Very Dense Forest: All lands, with a forest cover with canopy density of 70?% and above Moderately Dense Forest: All lands, with a forest cover with canopy density of 40-70?% Open Forest: All lands, with forest cover with canopy density of 10 to 40?% Mangrove Cover: Mangrove forest is salt tolerant forest ecosystem found mainly in tropical and sub-tropical coastal and/or inter-tidal regions. Mangrove cover is the area covered under mangrove vegetation as interpreted digitally from remote sensing data. It is a part of forest cover and also classified into three classes viz .very dense, moderately dense and open.Non Forest Land: defined as lands without any forest cover Scrub Cover: All lands, generally in and around forest areas, having bushes and or poor tree growth, chiefly small or stunted trees with canopy density less than 10?% Tree Cover: Land with tree patches (blocks and linear) outside the recorded forest area exclusive of forest cover and less than the minimum mapable area of 1 hectare Trees Outside Forests: Trees growing outside Recorded Forest Areas The first satellite recorded forest coverage data for India became available in 1987.India and the United States cooperated in 2001, using Landsat MSS with spatial resolution of 80 metres, to get accurate forest distribution data. India thereafter switched to digital image and advanced satellites with 23 metres resolution and software processing of images to get more refined data on forest quantity and forest quality. India now assesses its forest distribution data biennially.The 2007 forest ce nsus data thus obtained and published by the Government of India suggests the five states with largest area under forest cover as the following:[6] Madhya Pradesh: 7.64 million hectares Arunachal Pradesh: 6. 8 million hectares Chhattisgarh: 5. 6 million hectares Orissa: 4. 83 million hectares Maharashtra: 4. 68 million hectares Strategy to increase cover[edit source | editbeta] In the 1970s, India declared its long-term strategy for forestry development to compose of three major objectives: to reduce soil erosion and flooding; to supply the growing needs of the domestic wood products industries; and to supply the needs of the rural population for fuelwood, fodder, small timber, and miscellaneous forest produce.To achieve these objectives, theNational Commission on Agriculture in 1976 recommended the reorganisation of state forestry departments and advocated the concept of social forestry. The commission itself worked on the first two objectives, emphasising traditional forestry and wildlife activities; in pursuit of the third objective, the commission recommended the establishment of a new kind of unit to develop community forests.Following the leads of Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh, a number of other states also established community-based forestry agencies that emphasised programmes on farm forestry, timber management, extension forestry, reforestation of degraded forests, and use of forests for recreational purposes. In the 1980s, such socially responsible forestry was encouraged by state community forestry agencies.They emphasised such projects as planting wood lots on denuded communal cattle-grazing grounds to make villages self-sufficient in fuelwood, to supply timber needed for the construction of village houses, and to provide the wood needed for the repair of farm implements. Both individual farmers and tribal communities were also encouraged to grow trees for profit. For example, in Gujarat, one of the more aggressive states in developing programmes of s ocioeconomic importance, the forestry department distributed 200 million tree seedlings in 1983.The fast-growing eucalyptus is the main species being planted nationwide, followed by pineand poplar. In 2002, India set up a National Forest Commission to review and assess India's policy and law, its effect on India's forests, its impact of local forest communities, and to make recommendations to achieve sustainable forest and ecological security in India. [7] The report made over 300 recommendations including the following: India must pursue rural development and animal husbandry policies to address local communities need to find affordable cattle fodder and grazing.To  avoid destruction of local forest cover, fodder must reach these communities on reliable roads and other infrastructure, in all seasons year round. The Forest Rights Bill is likely to be harmful to forest conservation and ecological security. The Forest Rights Bill became a law since 2007. The government should work c losely with mining companies. Revenue generated from lease of mines must be pooled into a dedicated fund to conserve and improve the quality of forests in the region where the mines are located. Power to declare ecologically sensitive areas must be with each Indian state.The mandate of State Forest Corporations and government owned monopolies must be changed. Government should reform regulations and laws that ban felling of trees and transit of wood within India. Sustainable agro-forestry and farm forestry must be encouraged through financial and regulatory reforms, particularly on privately owned lands. India's national forest policy expects to invest US$ 26. 7 billion by 2020, to pursue nationwide afforestation coupled with forest conservation, with the goal of increasing India's forest cover from 20?% to 33?%.Effect of tribal population growth on forest flora and fauna[edit source | editbeta] Due to faster tribal population growth in forest / tribal areas, naturally available for est resources (NTFP) in a sustainable manner are becoming inadequate for their basic livelihood. Many tribal are giving up their traditional livelihood and taking up farming and cattle rearing in the forest areas causing un-repairable damage to forests. The erstwhile protectors of forests are slowly turning into bane of forests and its wildlife. Government should devise schemes to avert this process and save the dwindling forest area and its flora and fauna.Tribal people have extraordinary understanding of forest flora and fauna which can be productively utilized. All the tribals shall be employed by the government in the expansion and protection of forests and its wildlife till their descendants get educated and diversify into industrial and service sectors. [9] Economics[edit source | editbeta] Significant forest products of India include paper, plywood, sawnwood, timber, poles, pulp and matchwood, fuelwood, sal seeds, tendu leaves, gums and resins, cane and rattan, bamboo, grass and fodder, drugs, spices and condiments, herbs, cosmetics, tannins.India is a significant importer of forest products. Logs account for 67?% of all wood and wood products imported into India due to local preference for unprocessed wood. This preference is explained by the availability of inexpensive labor and the large number of productive sawmills. In trade year 2008-2009, India imported logs worth $1. 14 billion, an increase of about 70?% in just 4 years. [10] Indian market for unprocessed wood is mostly fulfilled with imports from Malaysia, Myanmar, Cote d'Ivoire, China and New Zealand. India is growing market for partially finished and ready-to-assemble furniture.China and Malaysia account for 60?% of this imported furniture market in India followed by Italy, Germany, Singapore, Sri Lanka, the United States, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. The Indian market is accustomed to teak and other hardwoods that are perceived to be more resistant to termites, decay and are able to withstand the tropical climate. Teak wood is typically seen as a benchmark with respect to grade and prices of other wood species. Major imported wood species are tropical woods such as mahogany, garjan, marianti, and sapeli. Plantation timber includes teak, eucalyptus, and poplar, as well as spruce, pine, and fir.India imports small quantities of temperate hardwoods such as ash, maple, cherry, oak, walnut, beech, etc. as squared logs or as lumber. India is the world's third largest hardwood log importer. In 2009, India imported 332 million cubic metres of roundwood mostly for fuel wood application, 17. 3 million cubic metres of sawnwood and wood-based panels, 7. 6 million metric tonnes of paper and paperboard and about 4. 5 million metric tonnes of wood and fiber pulp. Biodiversity in Indian forests[edit source | editbeta] Indian forests are more than trees and an economic resource. They are home to some of earth's unique flora and fauna.Indian forests represent one of the 12 mega biodiverse reg ions of the world. India's Western Ghats and Eastern Himalayas are amongst the 32 biodiversity hotspots on earth. India is home to 12?% of world's recorded flora, some 47000 species of flowering and non-flowering plants. [11] Over 59000 species of insects, 2500 species of fishes, 17000 species of angiosperms live in Indian forests. About 90000 animal species, representing over 7?% of earth's recorded faunal species have been found in Indian forests. Over 4000 mammal species are found here.India has one of the richest variety of bird species on earth, hosting about 12.5?% of known species of birds. Many of these flora and fauna species are endemic to India. Indian forests and wetlands serve as temporary home to many migrant birds. Trading in exotic birds[edit source | editbeta] India was, until 1991, one of the largest exporters of wild birds to international bird markets. Most of the birds traded were parakeets and munias. Most of these birds were exported to countries in Europe and the Middle East. [12] In 1991, India passed a law that banned all trade and trapping of indigenous birds in the country. The passage of the law stopped the legal exports, but illegal trafficking has continued.In 2001, for example, an attempt to smuggle some 10,000 wild birds was discovered, and these birds were confiscated at the Mumbai international airport. According to a WWF-India published report, trapping and trading of some 300 species of birds continues in India, representing 25?% of known species in the country. Tens of thousands of birds are trapped from the forests of India, and traded every month to serve the demand for bird pets. Another market driver for bird trapping and trade is the segment of Indians who on certain religious occasions, buy birds in captivity and free them as an act of kindness to all living beings of the world.Trappers and traders know of the need for piety in these people, and ensure a reliable supply of wild birds so that they can satisfy their ur ge to do good. The trappers, a detailed survey and investigation reveals are primarily tribal communities. The trappers lead a life of poverty and migrate over time. Their primary motivation was economics and the need to financially support their families. [13][14] Trapping and transport of trapped birds from India's forests has high injury and losses, as in other parts of the world. For every bird that reaches the market for a sale, many more die.Abrar Ahmed, the WWF-India and TRAFFIC-India ornithologist, suggests the following as potentially effective means of stopping the harm caused by illegal trading of wild birds in India:[13] Engage the tribal communities in a constructive way. Instead of criminalising their skills at finding, recognising, attracting and capturing birds, India should offer them employment to re-apply their skills through scientific management, protection and wildlife preservation. Allow captive and humane breeding of certain species of birds, to satisfy the m arket demand for pet birds.Better and continuous enforcement to prevent trapping practices, stop trading and end smuggling of wild birds of India through neighboring countries that have not banned trading of wild birds. Education and continued media exposure of the ecological and environmental harm done by wild bird trade, in order to reduce the demand for trapped wild birds as pets. Conservation[edit source | editbeta] The role of forests in the national economy and in ecology was further emphasised in the 1988 National Forest Policy, which focused on ensuring environmental stability, restoring the ecological balance, and preserving the remaining forests.Other objectives of the policy were meeting the need for fuelwood, fodder, and small timber for rural and tribal people while recognising the need to actively involve local people in the management of forest resources. Also in 1988, the Forest Conservation Act of 1980 was amended to facilitate stricter conservation measures. A new target was to increase the forest cover to 33?% of India's land area from the then-official estimate of 23?%. In June 1990, the central government adopted resolutions that combined forest science with social forestry, that is, taking the sociocultural traditions of the local people into.The cumulative area afforested during the 1951-91 period was nearly 179,000 square kilometres. However, despite large-scale tree planting programmes, forestry is one arena in which India has actually regressed since independence. Annual fellings at about four times the growth rate are a major cause. Widespread pilfering by villagers for firewood and fodder also represents a major decrement. In addition, the 1988 National Forest Policy noted, the forested area has been shrinking as a result of land cleared for farming and development programmes.Between 1990 and 2010, as evidenced by satellite data, India has reversed the deforestation trend. FAO reports India's rate of forest addition has increased in recent years, and as of 2010, it is the third fastest in the world in increasing forest cover. The 2009 Indian national forest policy document emphasises the need to combine India's effort at forest conservation with sustainable forest management. India defines forest management as one where the economic needs of local communities are not ignored, rather forests are sustained while meeting nation's economic needs and local issues through scientific forestry.Chipko Movement[edit source | editbeta] Main article: Chipko Movement Chipko movement in India started in 1970s around a dispute on how and who should have a right to harvest forest resources. Although the Chipko movement is now practically non-existent inUttarakhand, the Indian state of its origin, it remains one of the most frequently deployed examples of an environmental and a people's movement in developing countries such as India.What caused Chipko is now a subject of debate; some neopopulists theorise Chipko as an environm ental movement and an attempt to save forests, while others suggest that Chipko movement had nothing to do with eco-conservation, but was driven primarily to demand equal rights to harvest forests by local communities. According to one set of writers: Since the early 1970s, as they realised that deforestation threatened not only the ecology but their livelihood in a variety of ways, people have become more interested and involved in conservation.The best known popular activist movement is the Chipko Movement, in which local women under the leadership of Chandi Prasad Bhatt and Sunderlal Bahuguna, decided to fight the government and the vested interests to save trees. The women of Chamoli District, Uttar Pradesh, declared that they would embrace—literally â€Å"to stick to† (chipkna in Hindi)–trees if a sporting goods manufacturer attempted to cut down ash trees in their district. Since initial activism in 1973, the movement has spread and become an ecological mo vement leading to similar actions in other forest areas.The movement has slowed down the process of deforestation, exposed vested interests, increased ecological awareness, and demonstrated the viability of people power. [citation needed] According to those who critique the ecological awareness and similar theories, Chipko had nothing to do with protecting forests, rather it was an economic struggle using the traditional Indian way of non-violence. These scientists point out that very little is left of the Chipko movements today in its region of origin save for its memory, even though the quality of forests and its use remains a critical issue for India.To explain the cause of Chipko movement, they find that government officials had ignored the subsistence issues of the local communities, who depended on forests for fuel, fodder, fertiliser and sustenance resources. These researchers claim that local interviews and fact finding confirms that local communities had filed complaints re questing the right to commercially exploit the forests around them. Their requests were denied, while permits to fell trees and exploit those same forests were granted to government-favoured non-resident contractors including a sporting company named Symonds. A protest that became Chipko movement followed.The movement grew and Indian government responded by imposing a 15-year ban on felling all trees above 1000 metres in the region directly as a result of the Chipko agitations. This legislation was deeply resented by many communities supporting Chipko because, the regulation further excluded the local people from the forest around them. Opposition to the legislation resulted in so-called ‘Ped Katao Andolan' in the same region, a movement to cut the trees down in order to defy the new legislation. The people behind Chipko movement felt that the government did not understand or care about their economic situation.Chipko movement, at the very least, suggests that forests in India are an important and integral resource for communities that live within these forests, or survive near the fringes of these forests. Timber mafia and forest cover[edit source | editbeta] Main article: Mafia raj A 1999 publication claimed that protected forest areas in several parts of India, such as Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka and Jharkhand, were vulnerable to illegal logging by timber mafias that have coopted or intimidated forestry officials, local politicians, businesses and citizenry.Clear-cutting is sometimes covered-up by conniving officials who report fictitious forest fires. [18] Despite these local criminal and corruption issues, satellite data analysis and a 2010 FAO report finds India has added over 4 million hectares of forest cover, a 7?% increase, between 1990 and 2010. [5] Forest rights[edit source | editbeta] In 1969, forestry in India underwent a major change with the passage of the Forest Rights Act, a new legislation that seeks to reverse the à ¢â‚¬Å"historical injustice† to forest dwelling communities that resulted from the failure to record their rights over forest land and resources.It also sought to bring in new forms of community conservation. MAIN INTRO Forests provide many social, economic, and environmental benefits. In addition to timber and paper products, forests provide wildlife habitat and recreational opportunities, prevent soil erosion and flooding, help provide clean air and water, and contain tremendous biodiversity. Forests are also an important defense against global climate change. Through the process of photosynthesis, forests produce life-giving oxygen and consume huge amounts of carbon dioxide, the atmospheric chemical most responsible for global warming.By decreasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, forests may reduce the effects of global warming. However, huge areas of the richest forests in the world have been cleared for wood fuel, timber products, agriculture, and livestock . These forests are rapidly disappearing. The tropical rain forests of the Brazilian Amazon River basin were cut down at an estimated rate of 14 million hectares (35 million acres) each year-an area about the size of the state of Wisconsin-in the 1990s. The countries with the most tropical forests tend to be developing and overpopulated nations in the southern hemisphere.Due to poor economies, people resort to clearing the forest and planting crops in order to survive. While there have been effective efforts to stop deforestation directly through boycotts of multinational corporations responsible for exploitative logging, the most effective conservation policies in these countries have been efforts to relieve poverty and expand access to education and health care. In 2005 the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations issued a major report, titled â€Å"Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005,† on the status of the world's forests.Based on a five-year study, the report found that forested areas throughout the world were continuing to decline at a rate of about 7. 3 million hectares (18 million acres) per year, an area equivalent in size to Panama or Sierra Leone. However, the rate of decline had slowed in comparison with the period from 1990 to 2000, when the world lost about 8. 9 million hectares (22 million acres) of forested area per year. Africa and South America continued to have the largest net loss of forests, while forest loss also continued in North and Central America and the Pacific Islands.Only Europe and Asia showed a net gain in forested areas due to forest planting, landscape restoration, and expansion of natural forests. China, in particular, reported a large-scale afforestation effort. In 2005 the world's total forest area was just under 4 billion hectares (10 billion acres). Forest Conservation is the practice of planting and maintaining forested areas for the benefit and sustainability of future generations. Around the ye ar 1900 in the United States, forest conservation became popular with the uses ofnatural resources.It is the upkeep of the natural resources within a forest that are beneficial to both humans and the ecosystem. Forest conservation acts to maintain, plan, and improve forested areas. Forests provide wildlife with a suitable habitat for living along with filtering groundwater and preventing runoff. [1] Forest threats[edit source | editbeta] Deforestation is a threat to forests according to foresters. Deforestation is the permanent destruction of forests and woodlands. Deforestation is brought about by commercial logging, conversion of woodlands to agricultural land, and the felling of trees for firewood and building material.Commercial logging is that harvest of timber products for the profit that is gained from selling the product. [12] Illegal logging is a threat to forests. Illegal logging is the harvest of timber for economic gain without permission. This method is a threat because it impedes plans and upkeep of a forest. [13] Forests are lost to urban development and building projects. When forest are cleared for these reasons, it creates problems that foresters are concerned with. When heavy machinery is used to clear forests or develop land, the soil becomes compacted.When the soil is compacted, the soil particles are packed tightly together. Soil compactionresults in water supply not being absorbed by tree roots and can be deadly to the growth of trees. Soil compaction also can create flooding. Compacted soil can not filter the groundwater into the soil therefor water can build up on the surface creating flooding as a result. [14] Species extinction is another threat to our forests. With the removal of forests, animal and plant species suffer. Animal species can not survive without the adequate needs of their lifestyle.Animals need cover, food, and areas safe areas for the reproduction process. Altering their environment disrupts the life cycle of animal species and they are oftentimes not able to adapt. Food sources are lost to deforestation. Animal species tend to consume plant life to maintain themselves. With the removal of forests this can result in animals not being able to find food in order to survive. [15] Unmanaged recreational use is also a threat to forests. Unmanaged reacreational use is the use of the forested lands by the public at an uncontrolled rate.As recreational use as increased among forests, foresters have noticed an increase in land management that is needed. [16] Invasive species threaten forests ecosystems. Invasive species are any species that is not native to that ecosystem and economic harm along with harm to the environment. [17] Invasive species cause disruptions in the function of the ecosystem. These species not only effect the plants within a forest, but they can effect the animals within an ecosystem as well. The financial impact cause by invasive species is 138 billion dollars per year with econom ic loss and control costs.Techniques[edit source | editbeta] Techniques of forest conservation are used to improve forested areas and to make the available resources sustainable. [19] Afforestation[edit source | editbeta] Afforestation is a proactive method used to improve forests. Afforestation is the planting of trees for commercial purposes. The supply of wood and wood products from afforested areas has prevented the over use and destruction of natural forests. Instead of taking resources from existing natural forests, afforestation is a process used to plant to trees and use them as resources instead of naturally existing forests.Afforestation is a way to create a forest. Afforestation occurs when the planting of trees is introduced to an area that previously had no trees. This creates habitat for wildlife, recreational areas, and commercial use while not causing harm to natural forests. [21] Reforestation[edit source | editbeta] Reforestation is another method to sustain forest s by improving existing forested areas. Reforestation is a method of planting trees in an existing forested area. This method is used in reaction to deforestation.When forests are removed without reestablishment they can be reforested by planting trees in the same area to rebuild the existing forest. [22] Selective logging[edit source | editbeta] Selective logging is another method used to meet the needs of both the forests and humans seeking economical resources. Selective logging is the removal of trees within a stand based on size limitations. This technique allows for forest regeneration to occur between and after the selective harvest cycles. Controlled burnAlthough it can be threatening if it is not controlled, fire is a successful way to conserve forest resources. Controlled burn is a technique that is used to manage forests. Fire can benefit the ecosystem within a forest. Fire is natural and it is also a tool of foresters used to improve the forests. It renews the forest und ergrowth and also stimulates the germination of trees species. In some species of trees such as the Sequoia, seedlings remain in dormancy until broken by fire. As a result, These species can not reproduce without fire.

How Tourism Promote Culture of Peace Essay

â€Å"I have watched the cultures of all lands blow around my house and other winds have blown the seeds of peace, for travel is the language of peace.† .. . Mahatma Gandhi Does tourism promote culture of peace? The tourism has become the important industry in the developing countries for the economic development. Tourism appears to be one of the few economic sectors able to guide a number of developing countries to higher levels of prosperity and for some to leave behind their least developed country status: As tourism is one of the world’s major industries and in continuously expanding. Tourism is the biggest and fastest growing industry in the world. Peace is a precondition for travel and tourism and all aspects of human growth and development. Tourism can rise above governmental boundaries by bringing people closer together through the understanding of different cultures, heritages, and beliefs. Therefore, it is potentially one of the most important vehicles for promoting peace among the peoples of the world. Tourism society of England (1976) defines tourism as â€Å"Tourism is a temporary short term movement of people to destination outside the places where they normally live and work and their activities during the stay at each destination.† It includes movements for all purposes. Alister Matheison and Geoffrey wall in their book â€Å"Tourism Economic, Physical and Social Impact† 1980 have tourism as â€Å"it is the temporary movement of the people to destination outside their normal places of work and residence, the activities undertaken during their stay in those destination and facilities created to cater to their needs.† Tourism has a wide range of positive economic impacts. It contributes directly to sales, profits, jobs, tax revenues, and income in the primary tourism sectors such as hotels, restaurants and transportation. Positive aspects of Tourism * Provides employment opportunities * Increases incomes and governmental revenues * Increased gross national products * Can promote local products and resources * Promotes a global community * Promotes international understanding and peace As there are also negative aspect of tourism which creates the social problems, degrades natural physical environment and creates pollution. It also increases the crime, prostitution and gambling but in another way it can be develop as a part of tourism. There are some criticisms on tourism that creates conflict in the host country, and commercialize culture, region and arts. So we can relate tourism and peace as peace can be simply known as â€Å"the absence of war† and calls for new positive concept of peace accepting the perspective of an organic and interconnected world. Regarding the peace; World tourism conference in Manila in 1980, declared that world tourism can be vital force for the world peace. So the tourism industry has a role of promoting global understanding, trust and world peace. Further, United Nations has also focused on peace and tourism and has identified creating peace through tourism is an important means to create peace in the world. Marxist theorist also assumed that inequality is a cause of conflict. More than inequality between individuals, rather inequality between ethnic groups or between regions referred as horizontal inequality. The major thing is the movement of people as a tourism triggers important process of capital formation and wealth distribution. It also helps to change the fundamental nature and social cultural relation of the people. Moreover, tourism reduces social inequalities by uplifting the living conditions of marginalized people which also helps to reduce structural violence. From the peace studies point of view, we considers tourism has potential to reduce violence as tourism is consumed at the point of production of increasing opportunities for individual and micro enterprises to sell additional products or services. Tourism is also based on diversity drawing from a large resources base which increases scope of wider participation. Tourism helps to raise living standard of people and deprived communities. Based on the common perception of the link between Tourism and peace, a number of scholars have argued for a role for tourism in the promotion of peace for specific countries. The relationship of the USA and the People’s Republic of China is a good example of the contribution of tourism to world peace. After the terrorists’ attack to the World Trade Centre on the 11th of September 2001, there was a significant decline (6.8 per cent fewer international tourists visiting than the previous year) in the number of tourists as was seen in the financial difficulty of many aviation companies. Terrorist attacks have sprung up in many tourist destinations, such as Bali and more recently Madrid. D’ Amore (1988) suggested that the key to a changed political relationship between the USA and the People’s Republic of China was opening travel in various forms such as conferences, sports and trade. The role of tourism in the promotion of peace compatible with liberalism has been supported by a number of examples such as relations between the USA and the People’s Republic of China and the People’s Republic of China and Taiwan. The nature of traditional society is both an expression and cause of underdevelopment. So major and fundamental changes must occur across social, cultural, political and economic values, institutions and patterns of action if modernization to occur. There is a close relationship between economies and violent conflict. Conflict begins with the economic factor that makes some societies move to conflict. One of the main factors is poverty, mostly feature in civil wars. Economic growth is also associated with lower levels of conflict. If there would be policy that aim to promote growth in developing countries are in effect, agents of conflict prevention. Absence of war is an essential condition for peace and for the development, but it is not at all sufficient for any people to feel peaceful. Peace contains more positive concept. Tourism is not only the beneficiary of peace, but also vital force for negative and positive peace. Tourism should be designed and conducted in a proper way because it has both benefits and costs to local and global economy and society, culture and environment. If all the actors play their own role, tourism can gradually lead to peace. Tourism can lead peace when it is properly conducted by each actor and when more people can have opportunities to serve in this sector. Tourism is recognized as an instrument of social and cultural understanding by the opportunity offered to bring different people in contact and to provide facility of a acquisition and exchange of information about the way of life, cultures, languages and other social and economic endowments of the people as well as a change for making friendships and achieving goodwill and peace. The basic assumption of those who see tourism as a peace generator is that tourism allows people to know each other, to work with each other, and to learn to appreciate each other’s cultures and by so doing come to appreciate each other. The role of tourism and peace can be viewed from two perspectives, namely socio cultural and political (Kunwar, 2010). The political perspective on tourism and world peace focuses upon tourism as a promoter of national integration and international understanding, goodwill and peace. Peace tourism sees every traveler as an ambassador to peace. Socially and environmentally responsible tourism helps to foster stability, economic equity, and ultimately, a more peaceful society. Tourism can become a vital force to promote positive peace. Although tourism has negative and positive impacts, all the actors involved in tourism seems to recognize the necessity of global perspective, aided by the growing concern for sustainability in tourism. Based on a long-term perspective, tourism in a sustainable way can maximize the revenues of destination communities and governments and the profits of tourism enterprises, and keep attracting tourists and motivating local populations. Sustainable tourism satisfies tourists and host regions by protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future. The ultimate aims of tourism should be heading towards creating a better quality of life for all people, tolerance, economic sustainability and the reduction of structural violence. It has been argued that tourism is a positive force able to reduce tension and hostility by promoting peace in international relations. Tourism has significant political implications in world politics and international relations. Governments can use tourism as a political leverage to either promote tourism with friendly countries or restrict tourism with hostile countries by controlling the movement of tourists and the opportunities to have people-to people contacts. Therefore promotion of tourism leads to establish the global â€Å"culture of peace†. REFERENCES * Alon Gelbman (2008): Border Tourism in Israel: Conflict, Peace, Fear and Hope, Tourism Geographies: An International Journal of Tourism Space, Place and Environment, 10:2, 193-213 * Dallen J. Timothy (1999): Cross-Border Partnership in Tourism Resource Management: International Parks along the US-Canada Border, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 7:3-4, 182-205 * Ap, John, and Turgut Var (1990): Does Tourism promote World Peace? Tourism Management 11(3):267-273 * Anson, Caroline (1991): Planning for Peace: The role of tourism in the aftermath of violence. journal of travel Research 38(1): 57-61